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JAVANESE ULAMA IN MALAYSIA: MIGRATION AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY
This dissertation deals with the migration of Javanese Ulama and their role in establishing religious authority in the Malay Peninsula during the 20th century. Using a historical approach and utilizing the Muslim travelling theory and religious authority, this dissertation will answer the following research questions: Why were Javanese Ulama successful in establishing religious authority in the Malay Peninsula? How did Javanese Ulama influence the socio-religious landscape in the Malay Peninsula during the 20th century? And, how did Javanese Ulama maintain their religious authority in the Malay Peninsula? The data sources for this research were obtained from analysis of historical documents in the National Archives of Malaysia, books, journal articles, and interviews with several informants in Malaysia. The research findings indicate that the success of Javanese Ulama in establishing religious authority in Malaysia was achieved through various means, including the establishment of Islamic institutions such as surau, mosques, madrasahs, and pondok. These institutions not only served as places of worship and education but also became power bases for Javanese Ulama to affirm their religious authority within the community. Javanese Ulama were also actively involved in Sufi orders (tarekat). Through the teachings and practices of tarekat, Javanese Ulama, such as Kiai Ahmad Shah and Kiai Suhaimi, managed to build spiritual authority and attract many followers. The hierarchical relationship between murshid (spiritual guide) and disciples within the tarekat further strengthened the position of Javanese Ulama as influential religious leaders. Moreover, the Javanese Ulama produced textual works in various fields of Islamic sciences. The books written by Javanese Ulama, such as Kiai Muhammad Dahlan, Kiai Suhaimi, and Kiai Shamsuddin, became essential references in religious learning at pondok and in the wider Muslim community. Through these works, Javanese Ulama affirmed their authority in xvii interpreting and disseminating Islamic teachings. Some Javanese Ulama gained political legitimacy from the Sultans through their appointments as Qadi and Mufti. This not only reinforced the position of Javanese Ulama as religious authorities, but also demonstrated the state's recognition of their important roles. The religious authority of Javanese Ulama was also closely linked to the dynamics of resistance against colonial power. Pondok became alternative spaces for the Malay Muslim community to maintain their Islamic identity amidst the pressures of colonialism. Through leadership in tarekat, Javanese Ulama played a crucial role in mobilizing the masses and building solidarity among Malay Muslims. In addition, Javanese Ulama maintained their religious authority in Malaysia through several other means. Firstly, they possessed strong intellectual networks. Javanese Ulama acquired profound Islamic education in Java and Haramayn (Mecca and Medina). They mastered various branches of traditional Islamic sciences, such as Quranic exegesis (tafsir), hadith, Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), theology, and Sufism (tasawuf). This intellectual formation distinguished them from modern Muslim scholars and became a distinctive characteristic of their identity as Ulama. Secondly, they performed socio-religious roles (vocations). Javanese Ulama were actively involved in various roles, such as teaching in pondok and madrasahs, serving as mufti, qadi, penghulu, tarekat leaders, or as advisors to the Sultans. Through these roles, they asserted religious authority and positioned themselves as intermediaries between sacred texts and the Muslim community. Thirdly, they had a strong orientation towards the Islamic scholarly traditions. Javanese Ulama positioned themselves as heirs and guardians of the Islamic intellectual traditions. They referred to classical sources, employed traditional methods of interpretation, and upheld established practices and doctrines. This orientation towards tradition, while remaining adaptive to the local Malaysian context, became a shared frame of reference that bound xviii them together. They also built networks with various parties, including fellow Ulama, sultanates, and through pondok associations. These networks became important social and cultural capital in upholding religious authority, spreading Islamic teachings, and influencing the development of Muslim society in Malaysia. Furthermore, Javanese Ulama produced religious works in various fields of Islamic sciences. The books written or translated into the Malay language and Jawi script became important references in the teaching and practice of Islam. These works affirmed Sunni orthodoxy and developed an Islamic discourse relevant to the local context. Javanese Ulama in the Malay Peninsula were also involved in the struggle against communism alongside the Malay community as spiritual leaders of the ―Laskar Selempang Merah‖ (Red Scarf Force). Their contribution to this armed struggle further strengthened their religious authority and socio-political role in Malay society. They became inspiring role models for the community in reviving Islamic traditions through piety, breadth of knowledge, and wisdom. They were respected figures and exemplars in practicing Islamic teachings. Through these diverse roles and contributions, Javanese Ulama maintained the continuity of Islamic traditions and became nodes connecting the ummah with the intellectual and spiritual heritage of Islam throughout the ages while affirming Islamic identity and practices in the Malay lands.
PASCASARJANA, UIN SUNAN KALIJAGA YOGYAKARTA
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